Smart Phone Adoption and the Use and Creation of High Quality / Low Cost Educational Resources through CTC

A proposed Pilot Project – Smart Phone Adoption and the Use and Creation of 

High Quality / Low Cost Educational Resources through Community Technology Centers

Pilot Project Location: Dominican Republic

February 5, 2012

The high level of inequality and low achievement scores of students in primary and secondary education in the Dominican Republic (DR) raise questions about the adequacy of increasing investments in Information Communication Technologies (ICT). In addition, rapid urbanization and population growth has increased the DR’s difficulties in developing the skilled human capital needed by their emerging economy (OECD, 2008). From 1950 to 2010 the population in the DR grew quickly, from 2.134 million to 10.169 million, and the percentage of urban dwellers grew from 23.8% to 68.54% (CEPAL, 2010). The DR has improved its educational system but with moderate success. With average enrollment in secondary education in Latin America and the Caribbean at 94%, in 2008, the D.R.’s enrollment was only 80%. The literacy rate is also below the regional average and total public spending on education (% of GDP) is low, at a level of 2.2% in 2007, compared to a world average of 4.6% in 2006 (World Bank, 2010).

Despite its low educational spending, the government has invested heavily in ICT technologies, contributing to the rapid expansion of Internet use in the D.R. in recent years. Internet accounts increased from 183.687 in 2006 to 508.603 by June 2010.  According to INDOTEL, 33% of Dominicans had access to the Internet by June 2010 (INDOTEL, 2010). The DR also has extensive mobile coverage and an adoption rate of 0.91 cellular phones per person (Ibid.). INDOTEL also hopes to bring broadband access to every town of over 300 inhabitants by 2012 (San Roman, 2009; INDOTEL, 2010). The telecommunications industry has grown by over 15% annually between 1997 and 2004, with most of the traffic from the D.R. destined for the United States (Stern, 2006). The high level of migration and international communication between family members increases the importance of ICT for Dominican families.

Building on the development of Community Technology Centers (CTCs) and increased broadband access, the introduction of educational programs through mobile phones, could, in the future, further reduce the digital divide and promote lifelong learning. Current international measurements indicate that the D.R. public education system is not meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for universal primary education, and only a small number of students are benefiting from ICT initiatives. In addition, with a limited number of higher education institutions and specialized instructors, Dominicans have reduced possibilities for obtaining a high quality higher education, or indeed any form of higher education. To meet this supply-side challenge, this paper proposes the expansion of services provided by CTCs by encouraging learners to take part in a pilot, self-directed, market oriented, personalized learning experience, using mobile devices to access high quality, low cost educational resources.

Brief Description of a Mobile Learning Reform and a Formative Evaluation Project

“Internet is one of the most powerful instruments of the 21st century for increasing transparency in the conduct of the powerful, access to information, and for facilitating active citizen participation in building democratic societies” (La Rue, 2011) Human Rights Report United Nations

“Cellular phones have an almost ideal set of perceived attributes, which is one reason for this innovation’s very rapid rate of adoption… Mobile telephones are constantly being re-invented, thanks to a constant stream of new services” (Rogers, 2005 – Location 5470)

Few technologies have spread quicker than the mobile phone (ITU, 2011). Most of this rapid growth, expanding from 1 to 6 billion, took place in only a decade. The relative advantage of mobile phones and their high level of observability were described extensively by Rogers (2005) in his discussion of the Diffusion of Innovations. However, it will take years before many users are able to benefit from mobile phones with a higher processing capacity, internet access and location based capabilities, devices known as “smart” phones (Zheng & Ni, 2006). By promoting the use of “smart” phones for educational purposes this project hopes to empower local communities, as well as provide a learning opportunity to those that currently lack access to a higher education institution or are interested in learning a marketable skill. This paper supports the development of a pilot project in one or various CTCs.

In this paper the author proposes the provision of “smart” phones to individuals who agree to participate in an informal educational initiative through a project run by their local CTC in the DR (http://primeradama.gob.do/ctc). Applicants will be able to obtain a subsidized “smart” phone for the price of purchasing an older “feature” phone (of $50) if they agree to use it to learn a marketable skill though a Personal Learning Environment (PLE) (Fruhmann, Nussbaumer, & Albert, 2010; van Harmelen, 2008). A PLE is a highly customizable learning framework where participants map out their information flows as well as their learning objectives, forming a personal learning framework by mixing and matching available resources.

 Applicants must also participate in a number of workshops, and visit the CTC on a monthly or as needed basis. This type of diffusion of innovation focuses on the individual rather than a group adoption or broader adoption proposal. As an “optional decision(s) [it] can usually be made more rapidly than collective [adoption] decisions” (Rodgers, 2005 – Location 1232), increasing the likelihood of the success of the project. The rapid improvement of technology and the decrease in cost per computational power indicates that the Internet and other modern technologies will play an increasingly important role in society and the global economy (Kurzweil, 1999). “Smart” phones users today can access the Internet, take high quality pictures, use spreadsheets, write papers, and watch videos. These amazing devices are available for less than $150 and carry with them the possibility of accessing over 400,000 mobile applications on Android OS alone. They also include video and audio recording capabilities. The expected reduction in price of mobile phones further supports the potential affordability of this project. It is also predicted that apps will play a greater role in mobile communications in the near future, as most individuals will access the internet through mobile devices by 2015 (Hamblen, 2011).

With more information becoming available online, there are also more high quality educational materials openly available through the Internet. There are already over 100,000 openly accessible books through Project Gutenberg (http://www.gutenberg.org/), an open Encyclopedia (http://www.wikipedia.org) that includes over 3.75 million articles in English alone, over 750,000 open access academic articles (http://www.doaj.org) and thousands of college courses (http://www.ocwconsortium.org/) that have been recorded and published online. The World Bank (WB) and UNESCO have also published guidelines supporting the adoption of open access (OA) materials. The WB recently released its own OA search engine (https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/). Considering that the Internet grew by 66% in 2009 and it is expected to continue growing at an ever increasing pace in the years to come,  becoming 44 times as large by 2020 as it was in 2009 (Reinsel & Gantz, 2010), the amount of open and high quality Internet content will also grow, possibly at a comparable rate.

Interesting advances in online study group software (http://openstudy.com/) and open learning management systems (LMS) (http://www.moodle.org) are also increasing the possibilities available to individuals for forming study groups and learning at a low cost together. Access to the Internet may not provide, in most instances, access to tertiary instruction, but it can provide access to high quality, low cost educational materials (HQ-LC) that can improve individuals’ lives, allowing them a greater access to information than could be provided by a local library in paper format.  A review of the literature on older “feature” mobile learning indicates that mobile phones can also increase the communication capacity of individuals and, by doing so, increase their economic productivity and social communication across large distances (Barberousse et al., 2009; Abraham, 2006; Donner & Escobari, 2010).  A “smart” phone can have a potentially larger impact, as the device allows for the distribution of multimedia content, the communication capabilities of a “feature” phone, and the ability to connect to the Internet and find other useful information.

A “smart” phone is a device that can be tailored for both formal and informal learning (Park, 2011; Caudill, 2007; Lugo & Schurmann, 2012). This project would encourage both forms of learning. The CTC staff will help participants in learning various vocational skills, complementing their formal education, and developing other valuable skills including citizen journalism and web editing, graphic design, programing, among others types of “flexible” or “just enough, just in time, just for me” learning (Ragus, 2004; Peters, 2009).

[Text Box]The project will be originally tailored at adult individuals focusing on the principles of andragogy and student self-motivation (Merriam, 2001; Knowles, 1984). The CTC staff would then work with them to develop a PLE. While some may choose to pay for a data plan, a data plan will not be required as they will be able to download information via WIFI during their visits to the CTCs. The CTC will also instruct them on the creation and use of OER, as the project hopes to expand the local production of information (Edmundson, 2007; Wright & Reju, 2012). By learning how to search for HQ-LC information participants will also be able to improve their information and digital literacy skills. (Gilster, 1998; Bundy, 2004)

To analyze the advantages and disadvantages of this intervention in an education and development context, the researcher applied Rodger’s Diffusion of Innovation theory. This project aims to be compatible, have a high relative advantage, and reduce complexity, while increasing trialability and observability. The educational objectives of this intervention are to improve the lifelong learning experience of participants or their “learning to know,” “learning to do,” “learning to live together,” and their “learning to be” as stated by Jacques Delors (http://www.unesco.org/delors/fourpil.htm). Improving on these goals is a lifelong journey, but through the use of “smart” phones, the CTC will be able to help individuals move closer towards improving their educational, social and economic possibilities. The guidelines used to evaluate participants’ progress in achieving their learning objectives will be published at a later date. As dichotomized by Rodgers (2005), the adoption of “smart” phones includes both a hardware technology, and a software technology component. The section below discusses the potential diffusion of both technologies:

Analysis of “Smart” Phones

Relative Advantage: “Smart” phones maintain the “flexible” learning capabilities of the older “feature” phones while allowing for other more advanced uses. Increased connectivity has been linked to increased productivity in India, Haiti, and other parts of the world (Barberousse, et al., 2009; Abraham, 2006; Donner & Escobari, 2010). Mobile phones have helped fishermen and farmers to know when and how much to take to the market. In Haiti, they are currently being used for aid relief, to reduce victimization, and to decrease the cost of transaction and corruption through the use of mobile banking. “Smart” mobile phones extend the advantage of “feature” phones by incorporating location-based and augmented reality capabilities, as demonstrated by Open Source ARIS in Wisconsin-Madison (Gagnon, 2010). Smart phones also provide many health related applications, helping those with poor vision identify their surroundings, allowing individuals with Dow n’s-Syndrome or autism to interact more with their environment, or helping a person find directions anywhere in the world (Collerton, 2011). There are also many unique and powerful art applications with open, supportive online communities that can encourage individuals to improve their skills by collaborating with learners anywhere in the world. Smart phones increasingly provide high battery life, are semi-rugged and are visually attractive.

A smart phone also provides a calculating capacity comparable to many low cost desktop computers. “Newer” phones have been helpful in documenting local news, crime, and record videos of abuses of power by different entities. As described by the Special Rapport to the United Nations, smart phones increase transparency and encourage citizen participation. Every day there are 48 hours of video uploaded to YouTube (http://www.youtube.com/), part of which is recorded and uploaded via mobile devices. Applications purchased are linked to virtual accounts and can be re-downloaded if a device is upgraded. Many mobile educational applications have also effectively blended high quality design, and gamification into educational objectives. Its growth has led Apple to become the most valuable company in the world. Its competitive and relative advantage can be validated by its commercial success. This is the greatest strength of the “smart” phone, which will greatly influence its diffusion. As mentioned by Rogers (2005 – Location 979), “The first two attributes, relative advantage and compatibility, are particularly important in explaining an innovation’s rate of adoption.”

Compatibility: With over 5.9 billion subscriptions worldwide, mobile phone can be considered the most widely adopted modern technology (ITU, 2011). The rate of adoption is surprising as the devices have been adopted by many people in developing countries who lack access to other basic commodities. “Smart” phones will retain a function that is already common for the local population, allowing communication with family members and friends worldwide. With over 10% of Dominicans living abroad, communication is highly valued in the DR (Duany, 2005). Providing users with the ability to take pictures, and share social moments, the phone’s social elements align well with the friendly culture of the DR. By integrating the Internet, audio-visual recording capabilities, banking capabilities and location-based features they may be even more compatible than older “feature” phones. Given Dominicans’ reliance on tourism and their close proximity to the United States, ICTs are generally not perceived as invasive.

Complexity or Simplicity: Rodgers (2005) contended that mobile phones have been widely adopted partly because individuals already knew how to use landline phones, resulting in only a small change in terms of complexity. While “smart” phones are different from “feature” phones, they are designed to simplify use. Complexity concerns “the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and use” (Rodgers, 2005 – Location 961). The recent adoption of a touch sensitive user interface (UI) has contributed to its commercial success and it increased the phone’s user friendliness. Adding voice commands increases access for users with certain disabilities. There are a number of apps designed to improve the productivity and quality of life of disabled individuals (Collerton, 2011). While “smart” phones have a greater degree of complexity than “feature” phones, CTC workers and volunteers will help participants to develop digital literacy skills and discover more about the features that separate one from the other.

Trialability: Trialability “is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis” (Rodgers, 2005 – Location 965). Mobile phones are particularly easy to try or test because they are often borrowed by family members and friends to make calls or for their other features (Rodgers, 2005). Individuals who participate in the project may have their phone revoked if they do not meet the minimum progress requirements of the program. After a year of being part of the initiative, they will be allowed to keep the phone even if they stop being a part of the project. In terms of the project trialability, as a formative evaluation, a qualitative case study will be conducted during the initial years of the implementation. Regular observations, a series of interviews, and focus groups will explore how these smart phones are being used by the learners (Patton, 2002).

Observability: “Smart” phones are designed to be visually attractive. One of the greatest factors contributing to the success of the mobile phone resulted from their observability as an attractive and useful luxury item. It has been adopted primarily by affluent and younger (18-44) individuals. In addition, “for several years, Pew Internet research has found that African-Americans and Latinos are more likely than whites to use their cell phones for non-voice applications such as using the internet, playing games, or accessing multimedia content”. These differences extend to ownership (Smith, 2012, p. 9). Individuals will see their family members and friends using the devices publicly. “Smart” phones, as was the case with “feature” phones, will “bec(o)me a fashion statement” (Rodgers, 2005 – Location 5435) While this is not a main reason for promoting this educational project, it contributes significantly to its observability, and illustrates why it is important to develop effective educational use guidelines for these devices.  Linked to their observability is their impact as a communication device. Information spreading informally between neighbors has been linked to increasing the rate of adoption of technologies (Rodgers, 2005). They are also filled with social features which may lead others be become more aware of its possibilities through other spaces.

Overview: The greatest benefits of smart phones are their relative advantage, as well as their value as a status symbol. However, they also enjoy greater than average compatibility compared to other emerging technologies. Unlike a laptop or a desktop computer, they are unlikely to be left malfunctioning or damaged underneath a staircase as they can at least have a basic valuable utility for participants as communication and camera devices (two highly prized technologies). In addition they would also allow individuals to benefit from the growing amount of high quality, low cost information available through the Internet. The individual with access to the Internet is able to explore subjects of their personal interest. Having a greater degree of complexity, it is important for the learner to visit the CTCs on a regular basis to receive the support they need in their independent learning endeavor.

Analysis of “High Quality / Low Cost Educational Resources”

Rodgers (2005) illustrated how “hardware” technologies such as devices, are usually accompanied by “software” technologies, or programs. Mobile phones are technologies that fit this category. The hardware is not operable without an operating system. Android, the most common mobile OS, is an open access operating system, and phone producers can add it freely to their mobile devices. However, in this section I discuss other micro software technologies used by mobile phones, such as SMS and applications.  These other software technologies include full featured internet browsers (capable of streaming videos, and other dynamic content) allowing access to larger quantities of high quality / low cost educational resources.

Two Types of HQ-LC Resources: As mentioned earlier, there are two types of HQ-LC educational resources identified by this study: one form of HQ-LC are private resources that can be accessed via mobile devices at a cost of $1 to $5. Unlike comparable desktop software, that can cost hundreds of dollars, most applications for mobile phones fall within this price range (Canalys, 2012). They include very effective math games and powerful calculators. The other type of resource is OER. OER are resources that are available online that can be copied and modified without cost (Hylén, 2007). Anyone with Internet access is able to use these online resources and benefit from them. OER includes software such as Moodle, elements such as pictures, open access journal articles, as well as the database of UNESCO and the World Bank. Large quantities of public data are increasingly open, and currently over a tenth of all academic articles are open source (http://project-soap.eu/), including various high impact journals. OER also include open courses, such as those by Udacity (http://www.udacity.com), and open courseware such as the materials that have been released by Connexions Consortium (http://cnx.org/) and the Open CourseWare Consortium (http://www.ocwconsortium.org/). One of the greatest benefits of these materials is that they can be “remixed”, “reused”, “revised”, and “redistributed” at no cost (Wiley, 2010). Any material that is currently closed could be made open by changing its licensing. TED (http://www.ted.com) is an example of how this change can allow materials that were once only available to a few, to be accessible to thousands of viewers.

Some OER use more restricted variants of Creative Commons licenses but, by using the most open license (CC-BY), Wikipedia increased its flexibility, allowed editors to build on each other’s knowledge and produce a more reliable product (BBC, 2005). In addition, most OER resources can be downloaded for offline use, and by doing so, they can be used by individuals from their houses without increasing the user’s data cost or requiring Internet access. Changing resources without a data plan will require a trip to the CTC.

Relative Advantage: Two of the greatest problems in obtaining access to a quality education are limited financial resources and a limited skilled human capital in developing countries. A guided personalized learning experience with “smart” devices would allow individuals to obtain access to HQ-LC resources, enabling them to learn valuable skills. In addition, more instructors worldwide are also teaching Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs). (See example in Lewin 2012) While these programs are currently still being tested, they are certainly better than having no access to a tertiary education.  Informal students will increasingly have access to courses via sites such as Udacity (http://udacity.com/), P2P University (http://p2pu.org/en/), Udemy (http://udemy.com), University of the People (http://www.uopeople.org/), Academic Earth (http://academicearth.org/), Khan’s Academy (http://www.khanacademy.org/), among others. These courses allow a person with limited resources to take a course of their interest and become part of an online learning community.

Compatibility: Asking questions via Internet search engines has been simplified by Google, Bing and other sites, especially as auto-filling, instant search, and voice and image search functions have been included. Yet individuals who are not familiar with computers may perceive search platforms and online resources as extraneous and have initial compatibility problems. However, communities benefit from, and highly value, quality information. With search features being free, individuals are not discouraged from using it based on cost alone. In some of the networks individuals will be able to access locally relevant information. Improvements in ICT have increased the capacity of all individuals to produce content (Toffler, 1984; Tapscott & Williams, 2006). However, many OER are only available in English and, despite improvements in technologies such as instant translation this continues to be a barrier for many people around the world. Yet, by being open and customizable, OER can be localized without violating copyright and can become more community-relevant in a shorter period of time. English resources may be more appealing to students in the DR than in other places based on their proximity to the United States and their tourism development.

Complexity or Simplicity: The Internet and desktop or laptop computers can be perceived as foreign by both learners and local instructors. While more sites are being developed in local languages, the Internet remains filled primarily with content from more economically developed countries. Learning to use technology is a very important 21st century skill and courses such as RIA have used a model to develop digital citizens in 72 hours through the use of a CTC (http://www.ria.org.mx/site/). It is always difficult to learn a new skill, and as emphasized by the division between “digital natives” and “digital immigrants,” it appears to be particularly difficult for older individuals to adapt to newer technologies (Prensky, 2001). This is why, by taking a device home, we hope that participants will be able to better familiarize themselves with their functionalities, a finding that have been observed in other technology adoption projects (Cristia, et al., 2012). To use HQ-LC educational resources a person needs to have the ability to search for useful online information. There are large quantities of misleading information online, some of which could even jeopardize an individual’s identity. Yet, developing digital literacy and information literacy skills is increasingly important. Lacking these skills may limit a person’s ability to find a job or perform effectively in a position. Upgrading a mobile device with which they are already familiar may decrease the technology’s practical complexity and increase their ability to use it effectively.  A number of short, required courses through the CTC will aid the adoption process.

Trialability: Finding adequate HQ-LC resources for a learner can be very difficult, especially when some of the participants may have certain learning difficulties. It will be important to obtain rapid feedback from the learners to learn about the adequacy of a particular resource within the PLE.  Many sites such as Sophia (http://www.sophia.org) include a dual rating system that allows educational items to be rated out of 5 stars, as well as for current educators to certify a resource as a quality online educational resource. As more and more LC-HQ educational resources are identified and cataloged, their effectiveness is likely to increase and with it negative trialability experiences will be reduced. Various sites such as TEMOA (http://www.temoa.info/) include a catalog of resources available in Spanish. Developing a PLE is an iterative process which builds on trial and error. This is an important element of information literacy through digital devices. CTC staff members must be supportive through the process of helping students build their PLE by suggesting tools, without overwhelming the learner with options. As with playing a piano, obtaining high level information and digital skills can take many years and is a process of constant improvement (Seiter, 2008).

Observability: Many users share their applications with their friends, as well as pictures taken, and messages they wrote or received. As “smart” phones displace other small gaming devices, children may borrow them from their parents to play games. Many of the unique music and graphic modification applications are very visually appealing. Their interaction is also captivating. Al Gore’s iOS book Our Choice, for example, allows users to blow air through the speaker to activate a virtual windmill within the eBook to illustrate alternative energy generation (http://ourchoicethebook.com/). Videos of toddlers flipping through virtual pages have also gone “viral”. Because of the high visual appeal of “smart” phones with a large, touch screen, it is common for friends, and even strangers, to peek over the shoulder of an engaged user or learner. If individuals are using their learning materials in a public setting, they will likely receive others’ attention.

Overview: While independent learning materials and sites may be well known, OER and open licenses are not common terms. Some of the resources in particular applications may have a greater observability and attractiveness than others. The greatest challenge from the adoption of this “software” technology will be the effective development of PLE.  Having limited research on the creation of PLE in developing countries both increases the importance of this pilot project and the importance of conducting a formative evaluation. Developing a PLE would be very helpful for these learners, but it may be difficult to construct for certain learners, depending on the knowledge of the CTC employee. Centralized help will be required, which would perhaps be best produced by an online learning community, where CTC employees can share ideas as well as crowd-source questions to the broader Internet. The relative advantage of a well formed PLE is substantial, as individuals would be learning information literacy and digital literacy skills while practicing or learning another skill they are interested in obtaining. In this way, three learning objectives can be accomplished by a single project!

Conclusion – Decision and Implementation?

Discussing the literature, the context, as well as framing two innovations (hardware and software) within Rodgers (2005) diffusion of innovation model, this paper hopes to illustrate the possibility of starting a pilot project within a CTC and the optional-adoption model innovation diffusion of “smart” phones, encouraging the development of PLE. The purpose of the study is to obtain a better idea as to whether individuals can learn to build marketable skills by using the increasing availability of HQ-LC educational materials through the Internet. As quantity of these materials is expected to increase, so is the number of individuals who finish secondary education but are unable to attend a tertiary institution. In addition, the cost of “smart” phones continues to decrease as their computational power increases. This paper aims to provide the reader with enough information to make an informed decision and hopefully pursue the implementation of the pilot project. The DR is used as the context for this proposal because of the country’s high investment in ICT and the limited cost that adding this program would bring to the overall CTC project. Recent CTC projects in the DR have involved the community in their decision-making. Their support will be essential for the success of this project.

“While mobile learning is not widespread in Latin America, the proliferation of mobile phones in the region represents a significant opportunity to leverage mobile technologies for educational purposes” (Lugo & Schurmann, 2012, p. 8). “A device that is already being used on a daily basis is much more likely to be accepted than one that is unfamiliar. From this standpoint, mobile phones in Latin America offer a clear advantage vis-à-vis other devices such as personal computers (PCs), laptops and netbooks.” (ibid. p. 30) – UNESCO

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