ICT and the Digital Divide – A Participatory Solution with a Dominican Flavor

11/29/2011

The Digital Divides – The Ownership of Knowledge in the 21^st Century

The “digital divide,” a term coined in the late 20th century, highlights the growing disparity in access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) between and within countries (Norris, 2001; Compaine, 2001; Warschauer, 2003).  This concept, its meaning, and its implications for states across the world have been topics of widespread research and debate since the beginning of the 21^st century (OECD, 2000; Attewell, 2001; Goldfarb & Prince, 2007; Katz, 2008; Trucano, 2005; Mar, 2004; Chapman & Mahlck, 2004). Within the United States and abroad, public libraries and public computing centers have attempted to diminish the gap between technology haves and have-nots, yet many still lack access to computers, broadband Internet, and even mobile phones (Krebeck, 2010; InfoDev, 2010; The Economist, 2010; The Economist, 2005; Richardson et al., 2000). In addition, while the use of mobile phones is growing; smart phones remain inaccessible for the majority of individuals in developing countries. It is unclear whether reducing these inequalities will help countries to “develop” and “modernize” or whether it will increase reliance on imports, and promote capital flight while perpetuating global inequities.

Despite the promise of ICT, various studies of programs implemented in OECD states and LDCs found the initiatives had a debatable impact, obtaining only marginally positive results (Trucano, 2005). Studies surrounding the overall costs of ICT programs are also limited and only 10 to 15% of the total cost of ownership is attributed to the initial set up of the program (ibid).

Warschauer (2003) criticized the discourse of the “digital divide” and contended that the term should not be seen as a binary conception. He argued that such a notion “can even be patronizing because it fails to value the social resources that diverse groups bring to the table” (pg 7). The relationship between different groups of people and technologies vary and the development of a new technology does not by definition imply a benefit to the society. While Warschauer (2003) reminds us that technology is not a panacea, the material realities of ICTs extend beyond the discourse and its semantics (Peet & Hartwick, 2009). Unequal access to ICTs helps to perpetuate the economic differences between the core and periphery states, as the periphery continues to be dependent on the industries and products developed as a result of the knowledge accumulated by the core (Peet & Hartwick, 2009).

One of the primary reasons for the difficulties faced by poorer states in catching up with richer states has been the rapid, usually exponential, rate of innovation in technology through improvements in circuit technology. Since 1965, Moore’s law, or the exponential rate of technological innovation, continues to be supported by quantitative studies (Schaller, 1997; Kurzweil, 2005). Countries have increased their access to technology worldwide, yet the “divide” is a dynamic concept that changes as new technologies develop. ICT programs traditionally include radio, television, personal computers, the Internet or sharing of materials through a network, and mobile phone technology (Trucano, 2005).

In a study of 179 countries, Norris (2001) illustrated that there were three main “digital divides”, one between countries, or a “global divide”, one between social classes, or a “social divide,” and one between those who use resources and those that do not, or a “democratic[CEHD1]  divide.” Access to ICTs could be categorized in a different number of ways, and Norris’ categories highlight some of the differing implications of the “divide” depending on how it is conceptualized. It is also important to note that, similar to the use of the term “globalization,” the division between “information haves” and the “have-nots” is not a new concept; rather modern technologies have accentuated historical trends (Friedman, 2007; Sheppard et al., 2009; Compaine, 2001).

ICTs allow people to connect instantaneously worldwide, flattening certain aspects of international trade and communication (Friedman, 2007). Individuals can now find information about a large number of subjects without going to a library. Technology has transformed society, and it will continue to do so for years to come, and at a very fast pace. As such, Friedman (2007), along with other writers (Steinmueller, 2001; Friedman, 2007; Norris, 2001), has encouraged countries to invest in ICTs. To some, such investments are seen as a “stage” or objective to be met for a country to modernize and develop.

The rapid growth of ICT industries and their implications for states have led to transformational changes in society (Moravec, 2009). The first Apple personal computer, Apple Lisa, was released in 1984, the Internet was created in 1990 by Tim Berners-Lee, and the first mobile phone was developed by Motorola in 1974. Within just a few decades, mobile phone subscriptions extended from 12.4 million in 1990 to 4.6 billion by 2009, the Internet has reached most places in the world, and “research firm Gartner, Inc., predicts that there will be 2 billion computers in use worldwide by the year 2014” (Katz, 2008; Heeks, 2008; ITU, 2010). Facebook, a social network site which launched only in 2004, already has an estimated value of over 30 billion dollars (Hardy, 2010).

In some fields, ICTs have brought very positive changes, such as improvements in disability learning tools, distance education tools, long distance communications, and media creation. In various areas of the world citizens are becoming amateur reporters, recording and blogging about events that repressive governments attempt to censor (Diamond, 2010). Yet despite a large number of positive possibilities, some of these technologies are still used principally for entertainment purposes, and their potential for societal transformation and development has not been fully utilized. As long as states remain primarily importers of technology, rather than developers and producers, ICTs will perpetuate inequality. When the technologies are fully appropriated and the local population not only modifies and improves on the technology, but generates new technologies, the “digital divide” and knowledge dependency will diminish. To reduce inequality, education policy experts should focus on increasing access to Open Education Resources (OER) rather than simply attempting to “catch up” with richer societies by emulating their current use of ICTs [CEHD2] (Downes, 2007).

The proper use of ICTs could help bridge the knowledge and information gap, and aid in achieving a “new stage” of development. States could leapfrog past other states through a not yet developed, advanced system of online education which builds and intertwines aspects of Open Education Resources such as OpenCourseWare, Open Source Software, Open Books, Open Access Journals, Creative Commons licenses, and the cumulative creations made through Open Resource Economics (Jonestone, 2005; Downes, 2007; Benkler, 2008). By following Ted Berners-Lee’s call to “raw data now” and taking advantage of free materials such as YouTube EDU, ITunes U, and Connexions, as well as the future development of more open and freely accessible universities, poor states could use the Internet to perhaps eventually provide higher education for all, lifelong learning for all, and possibly reduce the costs of obtaining a high quality higher education degree (UNESCO, 2009; Faber, 2002; Lubas et al., 2004; Baraniuk, 2006; Berners-Lee, 2009). [CEHD3]

By using ICTs to create a more open and equitable society, and increase the local development of knowledge, states could move towards the development of “critical consciousness” and create their own path toward the future (Freire, 1974).  The growing use of technologies will also allow for the strengthening of local voices. ICTs are increasingly allowing its users to “rip”, “copy”, “reuse”, “mix”, and “burn” (Baraniuk, 2006). As Napster and peer-to-peer sharing transformed the Music industry, OER may transform our understanding of education. In his recent book, The Tower and The Cloud, Richard Katz (2008) wondered: “if a 300-year-old institution like Encyclopedia Britannica [could] be threatened in five years by Wikipedia, [could] other aggregators of expertise (aka colleges and universities) be similarly challenged?” (Katz, 2008).    Wikileaks?   J

Yet, more than a challenge, OER offers an alternative. OER can help local communities preserve their documents, materials, and extend the reach of their limited human capital through initiatives such as HP Brain Gain, the African Virtual University OER initiative[CEHD4] , and other programs which focus on increasing access to education for all. Rice University Connexions initiative of freely accessible textbook materials allows for the customization of chapters, free digital access to quality educational resources, and printing of cheaper materials (Connexions, 2006).

This essay will address how the Dominican Republic (D.R.) is attempting to reduce the digital divide through the use of ICT, in particular through the building of Community Technology Centers (CTCs) across the country and through the use of OERs. Yet while the D.R. has invested significant amounts of money on the development of ICT technologies, limited improvements in their public primary and secondary education may result in ICT benefiting primarily a certain sector of the population, while the poorest members of society continue to be excluded from the best schools and ICT technology. This essay overviews the educational system in the D.R., recent ICT developments, and policies that could be implemented to ensure that current investment in ICT reduces rather than increase inequalities.

The Dominican Republic – Rapid but Limited Growth – ICT for Education

With 10% of the population receiving close to 40% of the country’s GNP in 2007 (San Roman, 2009), the high level of inequality in the D.R. raises questions as to whether expenditure on ICT, rather than on improving the quality of the primary and secondary education levels, represents the best way for the country to increase equality while improving its economic outlook[CEHD5] . Yet, as technology plays an ever increasing role in modern society, it could also be argued that in order to leapfrog into the future, the D.R. needs to prepare its workers for the increasingly knowledge and innovation driven nature of the economy (Moravec, 2008; Davison et al, 2000), attempting not to imitate the west, but develop in its own style. With a limited tradition of research and innovation, the D.R. could invest in the development of OER to not only increase access to quality education material for all, but also to promote innovative and more constructive ways of teaching and learning. However, without an increased investment in education, present reforms will likely have a limited impact within the poorest sectors of the population.

The high level of inequalities in the D.R. dates back to the colonial era. Despite governmental efforts, the educational system and economic system developed by European colonists made increasing economic prosperity and reducing inequality a difficult challenge for former colonies to overcome (Bulmer-Thomas, 1994). The D.R. and neighboring Haiti had in place a plantation system in which only a small number of whites, constantly fearful of a revolt, controlled a much larger black slave population, who were constantly monitored and whose education was not encouraged (Moya Pons, 1992). As argued by Rodney (1972), the colonizers were fearful of educating slaves as it would make them more difficult to control. Out of up to 400,000 “taino” natives that inhabited Hispaniola when it was “discovered” by Columbus in 1492 only 3,000 remained by 1519 (Ibid. p. 29). Most of the natives died from epidemics as well as from the harsh treatment to which they were subjected by the colonists.

To continue the economic production and “development” of the island, the Spanish crown quickly began to import slaves from Africa and organized the island’s economy along various agricultural plantations. According to local documents, by 1546, black slaves accounted for around 12,000 individuals and were controlled by a white population of only 5,000 (Ibid. p. 34). While over time most of the population intermarried, and 84% of the population considers themselves mixed or of African ancestry, vestiges of the colonial system remain (CIA, 2010).

Just a few decades ago, in 1937, the then Dictator of the D.R,. Rafael Leonidas Trujillo (1930-1961), ordered the massacre of over 15,000 Haitians for having migrated to the D.R. without authorization. It is believed that many Dominicans with darker skin, and who resembled Haitians, also lost their lives. Trujillo’s government encouraged Europeans to migrate and open businesses with the aim of increasing the business sector as well as whitening the Dominican society. As a consequence, to this day, the poorest citizens of the D.R. are often of Haitian origin and tend to be of darker skin than wealthier families (Prado, 2009; Lozano, 2008; Murray, 2005; Lilon, 1999).

Recent demographic trends as well as a transition to a service economy have also increased the challenges faced by the government in fostering development. In recent years, the Dominican economy has transformed from a primarily agricultural economy to a service economy. Primarily through the growth of tourism, the service industry has grown to over 66% of GDP. This change has been beneficial to the D.R.’s economy, which has grown steadily since the 1980s, having an average economic growth rate of 5.43% from 2007 to 2009 and a Per Capita GDP of $8,300 (CIA, 2010). Free trade policies have led to the improvement of aggregate economic statistics for most Latin America countries, including the D.R.(UN Millennium Project, 2005). However, in 2008, 42% of the population lived below the poverty line (World Bank, 2008). In 2007, 11.2% of the population continued to live with less than a dollar a day (UNESCO, 2010), and the country had an unemployment rate of 14.9% (CIA, 2010).

Rapid urbanization and population growth has contributed to the government’s difficulties in developing the human resources needed to deal with the demands for new skills from the changing economy (OECD, 2008). While in 1950 the D.R. had a population of 2.134 million, of which 23.8% were urban dwellers, by 2010 the population had increased to 10.169 million inhabitants, with 68.54% living in urban areas (CEPAL, 2010). Similar to other developing countries that rapidly urbanized, the D.R. was faced with a complicated development challenge, a challenge that could be best met over time by empowering individuals to be creative and critical thinkers through a student-centered, progressive and competitive education system.

Previous governments attempted to increase both quality and access to primary and secondary education through a number of reforms (OECD, 2008, p. 92). In 1992, the country approved a major education reform through a 10 Year Plan (Plan Decenal) which promoted: 1) modernizing the educational structure, 2) the introduction of new technologies, 3) the promotion of literacy, 4) strengthening vocational education, 5) increased investment in education and 6) increasing community involvement (p. 104). The government programs yielded various positive results. Among them, the literacy rate increased steadily from 60.8% in 1980 to 70% in 1990, 78.5% in 2000, and 81.6% in 2008 (World Bank, 2010). Through Plan Decenal, the proportion of children between 6 and 17 that were attending school increased from 71.3% in 1991 to 86.4% in 2002 (p. 10).

However, despite moderate success in some areas, several indicators remain below expectations. By 2008, the average enrollment rate for Latin America and the Caribbean in secondary school was 94%, while in the D.R. enrollment was only 80%. The literacy rate remains below the regional average of 91% at 88.2% and total public spending on education (% of GDP) is low, at a level of 2.2% in 2007, compared to a world average of 4.6% in 2006 (World Bank, 2010). Primary education enrollment rate is also lower than the regional average at 104% compared to 116%[CEHD6] . In addition, according to a 2001 assessment of education throughout Latin America  by PREALC, urban children in the D.R. performed worst, and rural children only outperformed children in Bolivia and Peru, for whom Spanish is often a second language (Murray, 2005). The limited quality of the public education system has led to the rapid growth of private education institutions. While there were only 24 private schools in 1961, there were at least 2,500 by the year 2000 (Murray, 2005).

In recent years, however, the despite the implementation of the second Plan Decenal (2008-2018), the government has not substantially increased its education expenditure, instead focusing to a large extent on increasing access to ICT technologies for the general population. The government’s investments in ICT technologies recently resulted in the First Lady of the D.R. receiving the World Information Society Award in 2007 from the United Nations. She was honored for her contributions to building a more equitable and inclusive society by empowering Dominican families to improve their living standards through access to ICTs at Community Technology Centers (CTCs) (Cedeño Fernández, 2007). However, it is hard to assess to what degree these technologies are reducing inequalities and influencing primary and secondary education.

Other recent technological initiatives include the establishment of the Technological Institute of the Americas, (ITLA) founded in 2000, the Dominican Telecommunication Institute (INDOTEL), established in 1998, the Cyberpark of Santo Domingo, founded in 2001, and the new Network Access Point (NAP) of the Caribbean built in 2008 (INTEC, 2010; INDOTEL, 2010; PSCD, 2010; Dominican Today, 2008; ITLA, 2010).

The increased investment and emphasis on ICT development has contributed to the rapid expansion of Internet use in the D.R. in recent years, increasing from 183.687 Internet accounts in 2006 to 508.603 Internet accounts by June 2010.  Based on the average users per Internet connection, INDOTEL believes that 33% of Dominicans, or 3,214,371 people, had access to the Internet by June 2010 (INDOTEL, 2010). The D.R. has a cell phone use rate of 0.91 cellular phones per person (INDOTEL, 2010), and mobile phone coverage is increasing in rural areas. In addition, through the rural connectivity program, INDOTEL hopes to bring broadband access to every town with over 300 inhabitants by 2012 (San Roman, 2009; INDOTEL, 2010). The telecommunications industry has grown by over 15% annually between 1997 and 2004 with most of the traffic from the D.R. is destined for the United States (Stern, 2006). With 1 million, or 9%, of Dominicans living outside the country, most of them in the United States, the D.R. received 3.477 billion dollars in remittances in 2009 (World Bank, 2010). Remittances are not only a major source of foreign revenue but they have also fueled the growing development of ICT as families are in favor of investing to increase communication with their loved ones.

Regarding ICT and education, the government has promoted ICT through CTCs, the Educando.edu.do online community, Red-Wan, Virtual Areas for Education (AVES), and OER and software development at ITLA (ITLA, 2010; Khelladi, 2003) The most popular initiative in ICT for Education has been the CTCs. CTCs originated from the Costa Rican Little Intelligent Communities (LINCOS) initiative which was built in partnership with the MIT.  The project’s innovative approach of using decommissioned shipping containers to house computer labs proved enticing to donors (Granqvist, 2003; Granqvist, 2005; MIT, 2001).

This model was appealing to donors, but it was perceived as foreign, temporal, and inconvenient to Dominican users. LINCOS originated in Costa Rica, but it was exported soon after to the D.R. where it was subsequently modified. Granqvist (2005) argued that the lack of participation by the community in the planning stage of the program resulted in designers ignoring the fact that the containers felt hot and crowded[CEHD7] , and that some of the software and manuals, including the operating system, were on some occasions not in Spanish (Granqvist, 2005). The container model was dropped and replaced with a traditional building during the Hipolito Mejia administration (2000-2004), and it was further modified during the second presidency of Leonel Fernandez (2004-2008) to also include meeting rooms and a radio station (Prado, 2009). They are also hoping to include libraries and other educational materials within the CTCs. Working in collaboration with the Technological Institute of Monterrey, a pioneer in virtual education and OER, the CTCs include a variety of educational software and material (ibid).

Originally, most of the software and manuals were in English and they were limited in quantity and scope, yet that has increasingly changed as the initiative has developed (Granqvist, 2005). By the spring of 2009, there were 49 operational CTCs (Prado, 2009) and the Office of the First Lady has set a goal of building 135 CTCs in the upcoming years (Cedeño de Fernández, 2005). Comprehensively, the ICTs for Education initiatives in the D.R. are slowly bridging the digital divide. More and more individuals are obtaining access to advanced technologies, in doing so, the D.R. is meeting the the last Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 8-8f, which promotes increasing access to telephone lines, cellular subscriptions, and Internet use per 100 population (UNDP, 2010). The likelihood that OER and other educational technology tools will improve over time and the constructionist nature of their design allow for individuals who were previously unable to study to have the opportunity to learn how to use computers, operate a radio, learn how to read, as well as use the educational software within the computer. [CEHD8] Such resources provide a one of a kind opportunity for the individuals that have access to these newly built centers (Lozano P., 2007).

However, are the centers visited by a large percentage of the population? Who visits them? Prado’s (2009) study showed that, despite being located in rural areas where there is a higher poverty rate than in the cities (54.1% live under the poverty line),  most of the users of the three CTCs she surveyed had a higher level of education than the average population (World Bank, 2010; World Bank, 2008; Prado, 2009). According to Prado (2009) , 61.5% of the CTC users in the locations she studied had completed high school, a level which is significantly higher than the national average in 2004 of 40%. In addition, 12.8% of the CTC users had a university degree, in comparison to the 3% nationwide enrollment rate in higher education in 2008 (pg 80).

Therefore, are these ICTs programs reducing or increasing the digital divide? Being unable to find a job with computer or IT skills in rural areas, individuals who become competent in ICT are likely to migrate to the cities. ICT also do not seem to be targeting individuals of Haitian descent. Prado’s (2009) studied showed that, as a result of anti-haitianismo, individuals were hesitant to label themselves as Haitian or of Haitian [CEHD9] descent (Prado, 2009). Similar to previous studies mentioned within the InfoDev’s ICT Knowledge Map (Trucano, 2005), studies of the D.R. and the effectiveness of ICT are not supported by education outcomes data[CEHD10] . After modifying the LINCOS project and increasing the participatory element of the CTC establishment process, individuals appear to be more supportive of the project (Prado, 2009; Granqvist, 2005) yet the initiative appears to be serving only a limited number of individuals, at high operating costs.

While CTCs and increased broadband access, as well as the introduction of educational programs through mobile phones, could, in the future, extinguish the digital divide and promote lifelong learning, current international indicators show that the D.R. public education system is failing to meet the MDG for universal primary education, while only a few students are benefiting from their ICT initiative. As such, the D.R. could pursue two courses of action; either increase, and perhaps as much as triple, the budget allocated to public education in an attempt to better national results, and/or increase access to ICT for every individual in the country by joining the OLPC initiative and providing every single child with a laptop and CTCs in all communities. In order to leapfrog and properly meet the challenges facing the D.R. in the 21^st century, a much greater national emphasis needs to be given to all areas of education, not just ICT. This effort should be linked to the national Dominican identity, by promoting athletic activities such as baseball, and music education after school programs similar to Venezuela’s “El Sistema”, but with a bachata or merengue emphasis. While there have been noticeable improvements during the past decades, the D.R. continues to lag behind in educational achievements compared to other Latin American countries (Murray, 2005). ICT development and reducing the digital divide are part of the solution, but to fully reduce the inequality that have plagued the D.R. since the colonial years, a greater expenditure on education and improved relationships with Haiti would be beneficial.

Very well written. The next great frontier for ICT research is to follow up with users on the impacts of ICTs. You aptly noted that this is missing in the field, but I hope you will help fill this void in the years ahead.

A

Works Cited

Baraniuk, R. (2006, August). Richard Baraniuk: Open Source Learning. Retrieved November 3, 2010, from TED Ideas Worth Spreading: http://www.ted.com/talks/richard_baraniuk_on_open_source_learning.html

Bulmer-Thomas, V. (1994). The Economic History of Latin America Since Independence. Cambridge: University of Cambridge.

Cedeño de Fernández, M. (2005). Launch of the Digital Solidarity Fund (DSF). Geneva: Oficina de la Primera Dana.

Cedeño Fernández, M. (2007, May 17). World Information Society Award 2007 Laureates. Retrieved 12 3, 2010, from International Telecommunication Union: itu.int/wisd/2007/award/cedeno.html

CEPAL. (2010). CEPALSTAT | Base de Datos y Publicaciones Estadisticas. Retrieved from CEPALSTAT: http://www.eclac.org/estadisticas/

CIA. (2010). The World Factbook. Retrieved from Central Intelligence Agency: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/dr.html

Compaine, B. M. (2001). The digital divide: facing a crisis or creating a myth? Massachusetts: MIT Press Sourcebooks.

Connexions. (2006). Connexions: Sharing Knowledge and Building Communities. Houston: Rice University.

Davison, R., Vogel, D., Harris, R., & Jones, N. (2000). Technology Leapfrogging in Developing Countries – An Inevitable Luxury? The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries , 1-10.

Diamond, L. (2010). Liberation Technology. Journal of Democracy , 69-83.

Dominican Today. (2008, August 12). NAP of the Caribbean. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from Dominican Today: http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/technology/2008/8/12/29025/NAP-of-the-Caribbean-starts-operating-in-Dominican-cyberpark

Downes, S. (2007). Models for Sustainable Open Educational. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects , 29-44.

Freire, P. (1974). Education for critical consciousness. New York: Sheed & Ward.

Friedman, T. L. (2007). The World is Flat. New York: Picador.

Gajardo, M. (2008). Education for All Global Monitoring Report: Dominican Republic – Country Case Study. New York: UNESCO.

Granqvist, M. (2003). Assessing ICT Efforts in Marginalized Regions from a Critical Social Viewpoint – Learning from the Case of Lincos. Olistica, 1-6.

Granqvist, M. (2005). Looking Critically at ICT4Dev: The Case of Lincos. The Journal of Community Informatics , 21-34.

Hardy, Q. (2010, September 23). In Zuckerberg We Trust. Retrieved November 4, 2010, from Forbes: http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2010/1011/rich-list-10-technology-facebook-google-laws-zuckerberg-we-trust.html

Heeks, R. (2008). ICT4D 2.0: The Next Phase of Applying ICT for International Development. Computer , 26-33.

INDOTEL. (2010). Conectividad Rural de Banda Ancha – Segunda Etapa. Retrieved December 3, 2010, from http://www.indotel.gob.do/proyectos-indotel/proyectos-indotel/conectividad-rural-de-banda-ancha-segunda-etapa.html

INDOTEL. (2010). Quien es el INDOTEL. Retrieved December 3, 2010, from Instituto Tecnologico de las Comunicaciones: http://www.indotel.gob.do/conoce-al-indotel/conocenos/quien-es-el-indotel.html

INTEC. (2010). History. Retrieved December 3, 2010, from INTEC – Instituto Tecnologico de Santo Domingo: http://www.intec.edu.do/sobre/historia_intec.html

International Telecommunication Union. (2010). The World in 2010: ICT Facts and Figures. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union.

ITLA. (2010). Filosofía institucional. Retrieved December 5, 2010, from ITLA – Instituto Tecnologico de Las Americas: http://www.itla.edu.do/app2/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=248&Itemid=125

Jimenez, E., & Lockheed, M. E. (1995). Public and Private Secondary Education in Developing Countries – A Comparative Study. Washington D.C.: World Bank.

Katz, R. N. (2008). The Tower and The Cloud: Higher Education in the Age of Cloud Computing. Boulder: EDUCAUSE.

Khelladi, Y. (2003). Iniciativas públicas para la difusión social de las TICs en República Dominicana. Santo Domingo: Funredes.

Lilon, D. (1999). Propaganda y política migratoria dominicana durante la Era de Trujillo (1930-1961). Historia y Comunicacion Social , 47-71.

Lozano, P. (2007, August 07). Centros Tecnológicos Comunitarios PART 1. Retrieved December 3, 2010, from Youtube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MN7qhxvOyRE&feature=related

Lozano, W. (2008). La Paradoja de las Migraciones. Santo Domingo: UNIBE.

Luxner, L. (1997, Sep/Oct). Caribbean Gateway to the Web. Americas, pp. 4-5.

McMichael, P. (2004). Development and Social Change: A global Perspective. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

MIT. (2001). Lincos – Unwiring the World – The Vision. Retrieved December 6, 2010, from MIT Media Lab – Unwired: http://www.media.mit.edu/unwired/index.html

Moravec, J. W. (2008). A new paradigm of knowledge production in higher education. On the Horizon, 123-136.

Moravec, J. W. (2009). Technological Applications of Leapfrog. Minneapolis: Leapfrog Institute.

Moya Pons, F. (1992). Manual de Historia Dominicana. Santo Domingo: Caribbean Publishers.

Murray, G. (2005). El Colegio y la Escuela. Santo Domingo: Fondomicro.

OECD. (2008). Reviews of National Policies for Education. Paris: OECD.

Peet, R., & Hartwick, E. (2009). Theories of Development: Contentions, Arguments, Alternatives. New York: The Guilford Press.

Prado, P. (2009). Bridging Digital Poverty: Adoption of Information and Communication Technologies at Community Technology Centers in the Dominican Republic. Miami: University of Miami.

PSCD. (2010). About PCSD. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from PCSD – Parque Cibernetico de Santo Domingo: http://www.pcsd.com.do/English/about-pcsd.html

Sachs, J. (2005). The End of Poverty. New York: Penguin Press.

San Roman, E. (2009). Bringing Broadband Access to Rural Areas – The Dominican Experience. Santo Domingo: International Telecommunication Union.

Stern, P. A. (2006). Promoting Investment in Information and Communication Technologies in the Caribbean. Washington D.C.: Inter-American Development Bank.

UN Millennium Project. (2005). Investing in Development: A Practical Plan to Achieve the Millennium Development Goals. London: Earthscan.

UNDP. (2010). Goal 8: A global partnership for development. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from United Nations Development Programme – Millennium Development Goals: http://www.undp.org/mdg/goal8.shtml

UNESCO. (2010). UIS STATISTICS IN BRIEF – Education in Dominican Republic. New York: UNESCO.

World Bank. (2008, September). Dominican Republic at a Glance. Retrieved November 30, 2010, from World Bank: http://devdata.worldbank.org

World Bank. (2010). Dominican Republic Indicators. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/country/dominican-republic

World Bank. (2010). Migration and Remittances – the Dominican Republic. Washington D.C.: World Bank.

World Bank. (2010). World dataBank: Dominican Republic. Retrieved from World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/country/dominican-republic